Предмет політ.економії та еволюція його визначення різними школами.

Date: 2015-10-07; view: 403.

To make a long and complicated story short and simple—When Cromwell died in 1658, one of his generals seized power from Cromwell's son and called for new elections to Parliament. In 1660 the Parliament asked the son of Charles I to take the English throne as King Charles II (1660-1685). The monarchy was restored, but the revolution/civil war had strengthened the principle of Parliamentary restrictions upon the king's powers. The ongoing conflict between the King and Parliament over their relative authority would lead to another revolution in 1688-1689 (against the Catholic King James II), which brought William and Mary of Orange to the power under the condition that they accept a Bill of Rights that ensured the powers of Parliament and the rule of law.

When Elizabeth died the Tudor family line came to an end and the related Stuart family took the throne. Elizabeth's cousin James I (1603-1625) saw himself an absolute monarch (in the mold of the French King Louis XIII) and believed that strengthening the power of the monarchy required weakening the powers of the Parliament. His approach to governing alienated Parliament, as did his decision to make peace with Spain. Moreover, Puritans felt that the Stuarts were not sufficiently Protestant. His successor, Charles I (1625-1649) argued that he had the right to impose taxes and rule without approval of Parliament, and he did not call Parliament into session between 1629 and 1640. During that period, he also repressed the Puritans, imposed unpopular new taxes, and flagrantly violated rights that guaranteed all free Englishmen according to the Magna Carta.

When the last Valois king (Henry III) died in 1589, the new Bourbon King, Henry IV (1589-1610), moved effectively to restore and extend the power of the monarch. Despite Henry's conversion to Catholicism, his Edict of Nantes (above) served to neutralize Protestant resistance. That allowed Henry's successor, Louis XIII (1610-1643), to concentrate on state-building.

France developed the most effective centralized monarchical state in continental Europe in this period. In the Concordat of Bologna, King Francis I (1515-1547) had again obtained Papal recognition of King's right to appoint the church hierarchy in France. The trade off for monarchical control of appointments to the Church administration (which in additions to its other benefits allowed the King to use ecclesiastical offices as rewards), was that the Church and the clergy retained a special privileged legal status that, among other things, kept it exempt from all taxation. On a whole, the subordination of the ecclesiastic hierarchy to royal authority strengthened the power of the monarch.

After Philip's death, Spain still sought to assert its influence in continental politics, but again failed. Spain's entry into the 30 Years War (above) came at great cost and yielded no gains. The 1648 Peace of Westphalia required that Spain recognize the independence of Belgium and finalized the split between the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs. By 1660, Portugal also had become independent from Spain (it had been joined to Spain by Philip II). As Spain fell further and further into, the Spanish aristocracy and the Catholic Church stubbornly protected their privileges and prevented any real governmental administrative reforms. Taxes soared, the countryside was plagued by inflation, and the peasantry suffered; state policy and the power of the aristocrats simultaneously hindered the Spanish middle class from increasing its wealth and influence. Spain had become a second rate power and France had taken its place as the preeminent power on the continent.

Philip II, who we met a little earlier in this lecture, oversaw the collapse of Spanish dominance in continental Europe. It was Phillip that sent the largest land army ever formed (to that date) in Europe to crush the Revolt of the Netherlands—as we have seen, this failed. The loss of Holland deprived Spain of its most important industrial region. Devastation caused by warfare ushered in the decline of the Spanish controlled port of Antwerp and the rise of Protestant-controlled Amsterdam as the hub of trade in the Netherlands. Philip also intervened in France during the fighting between Catholics and Huguenots (on the Catholic side, of course), at great cost and with no effect. Not only did Philip's 1588 effort to defeat England (using the 22,000 ship Armada) fail, as we have seen, but the cost of war with England had bankrupted Spain by 1596. Meanwhile, Philip's renewed purge of all non-Catholic elements from Spain hardened the position an (entrenched) Catholic elite in the state administration that over the long term proved resistant to change and innovation.

Charles V left only portions of his empire to Philip II, who ruled Spain from 1556-1598 (Charles effectively divided the Austrian/German portion of his lands from the Spanish domains, which led to the creation of two Habsburg royal houses—the Austrian and the Spanish).

Ferdinand and Isabella made brilliant use of marriages to forge alliances that strengthened the Spanish state. They married off their daughter, Juanna, to Prince Phillip, the son of the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I; their son John married the Holy Roman Emperor's daughter. As a result, Spain became closely allied with the Austrian Habsburg family (which controlled the crown of the Holy Roman Emperor). As a result of this family connection, Ferdinand and Isabella's grandson, Charles V (1516-1556) inherited not only the Kingdom of Spain (and its colonies), but also Austria, the Netherlands, Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, and Franche Comte. In 1519, Charles V (by applying some pressure on the Pope), was elected Holy Roman Emperor.

Unifying Spain and defeating the Muslims required that Ferdinand and Isabella build a royal army. By the end of the 1400s, Spain had the largest, best supplied, and best trained army in Europe. To keep this army supplied required great resources, and Ferdinand and Isabella developed a system of centralized state administration to make the collection of taxes and other state duties more efficient. The centralized state administration also allowed them to rule more effectively over a country in which regional differences and rivalries were especially strong.

Spain had been the first great centralized monarchical state in Europe to emerge as a world power; it was also the first of the great centralized monarchies to fade in power and influence. In a lecture a few weeks ago, I mentioned that in the early 1400s Spain was divided into five different kingdoms; no single unified Spanish state existed in the medieval period. The first critical step toward a unified kingdom came in 1469, when King Ferdinand of Aragon married Queen Isabella of Castile. Between 1479 and 1516, Ferdinand and Isabella used force to unify the rest of Spain under their rule and to defeat the Muslims in the South.

One of the ironies of this era is that while Europe was engulfed in the wars of religion, the most successful and most powerful monarchical states were those able to subordinate the interests of the Church and the aristocracy to the needs of the centralized State.

The united monarchy forged an especially strong alliance with the Catholic Church: Ferdinand and Isabella needed a militant clergy (especially the Jesuits) in their fight against the Muslims and to provide literate administrators for the state bureaucracy; at the same time, the Church needed royal support at a time of general weakness (remember the lecture on the problems face by the church in the late 1400s!). The monarchy sought to create the idea of a single Spain, based upon the idea of a shared Spanish "blood." But Spain was a land of many different ethnic groups (the Basque people of the North, for instance, speak language completely different from Spanish), and the concept of "Spanish blood" had to be shaped in a way that excluded Spain's Jews and Muslims. So Spanish national identity became equated with Catholicism—what it meant to be Spanish was to be a Catholic who was a subject of Their Most Catholic Majesties, Ferdinand and Isabella. That helps explain why, in 1492, the crown ordered expulsion of all Jews and Muslims from Spain. (Those who remained, including those who converted to Catholicism, were subject to constant suspicion, repression, and even torture and death at the hands of the Inquisition—a Church institution.)

Charles V did much to build up the army and state administration in his vast empire, and in particular devoted resources to Spain, which became to military backbone of the Habsburg lands. If you look back to earlier lectures, you will find several references to the Habsburgs using the Spanish army to intervene, for instance, in Italy, and against the spread of Protestantism (above). But the cost of such warfare actually weakened Charles' power. Moreover, the very size of the Habsburg Empire made it difficult to administer and govern. And some of its apparent strengths also proved to create long-term weaknesses; the influx of gold from Spain's American colonies, for instance, tended to discourage economic initiative and slowed the growth of the Spanish middle class (as had the expulsion of Jewish and Muslim merchants!).

Francis I's son, King Henry II (1547-1559), however, was unable to hold his kingdom together as effectively as had his father. During the reigns of Henry and his sons Francis II (1559-1560), Charles IX (1560-1574), and Henry III (1574-1589), France was torn by conflict between Catholic and Protestant forces (see above for discussion of the French wars of religion in 1562-1598). Huguenot rebels sought to replace the monarch but not the monarchy (they argued that rebellion against an unjust King was righteous, but also argued that France must have "one King, one God, and one Law"). Still, the long religious war weakened the powers of the French monarch.

Louis built a system of rule called "absolutism," based on the idea that the King's rule is absolute and not limited by the interests of the aristocrats or the Church, and that the King should base policy on the interests of the State (not that of any social group, the faith, etc.). All governing power and authority rested with the monarch. But Louis XIII's system depended upon creating an effective bureaucracy able to collect taxes (necessary to fund warfare, etc.) while holding in check to ambitions of the Church, the aristocracy, and the Protestants. The architect of this bureaucracy was Cardinal Richelieu, the King's chief minister from 1624 to 1642. Richelieu built to the central government ministries (all of which answered directly to him and to the King). He stressed that the provinces must follow the directives of the central government, and he established a system of royal agents (often men of the middle class), who traveled to the provinces to ensure that taxes were collected, laws followed, etc. He weakened the independence of Huguenot-dominated towns. And he "humbled" the nobility by limiting their access to the King and reducing their traditional privileges. (For instance, the King no longer called the Estates General, a gathering of nobles and other elites from across France that customarily had advised the King on issues such as taxation and war.)

The methods and style of absolutist rule would reach their apex under King Louis XIV and his main advisor, Cardinal Mazerin, but that brings us into the 1660s and the period after the end of this course…

England provides an example of an alternative form of state building. After the War of the Roses (1455-1485), the new Tudor monarchy under King Henry VII (1485-1509) began brining commoners into the government administration. Unlike nobles, who had their own political factions and ambitions, commoners would serve the king loyally in return for financial rewards and status. Henry VIII (1509-1547) considerably strengthened the centralized monarchical state when he broke with Rome and established the Church of England (which we discussed last week). But Henry would not have been able to accomplish "his" Reformation without support from the Parliament, the landed gentry (nobles), and the merchants; his gifts of land confiscated from Catholic monasteries helped cement the loyalty of many of these supporters.

Like her father, Henry's daughter Elizabeth I (1558-1603) considerably increased the size and power of the central government. Elizabeth used the resources of the state to build ports, canals, and ships— infrastructure that was necessary for the growth of England's international power. She also deftly balanced the interests of the "old" aristocratic elite with the emerging commercial elite of merchants and "capitalist" landlords (nobles who already had started to use their land in new ways to produce surplus aim at the market with the goal of making a profit). The new commercial elite, and the commoners who served in government administration, tended to be drawn towards the English variant of Calvinism (known as Puritanism). The commercial elites entered Parliament alongside the old aristocracy, and like the old aristocracy they had come to see the relationship between King and Parliament as a partnership.

In 1640, Charles had to call Parliament into session, to raise new funds for a planned invasion of Scotland (which had rebelled against Charles' imposition of bishops on the Scottish Presbyterian Church, which had no ecclesiastical hierarchy). Parliament refused to agree unless Charles guaranteed that he would consult the Parliament on all matters of taxation; recognize the right of all Englishmen to trial by jury and habeas corpus; end persecution of the Puritans; and reform the Church of England on the basis of Puritan principles. Charles recognized that these concessions would have subordinated royal authority to that of the Parliament and refused. The result was a revolution/civil war between Parliament's "Roundheads" and forces loyal to the King (the Cavaliers), beginning in 1642. In 1644 the Parliament's army reorganized as the "New Model Army" under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell. The New Model Army, which included gentleman farmers, fanatical Puritans, and thousands of poor laborers, soundly defeated the King's forces in 1646. Charles I was forced to revoke many of his decrees, such as the impositions of Bishops in Scotland.

But in 1648, Charles renewed the fight against Parliament and the war re-ignited. This time Parliament arrested then beheaded Charles I (in 1649). The Parliament now ruled England as a Commonwealth, without a king. Parliament's rule depended upon support from the New Model Army, led by Cromwell. In 1653 Cromwell used the military to take power in the name of the "Parliament" in a sort-of-dictatorship called the "Protectorate." Cromwell the "Lord Protector" then purged the leadership of the army of its more radical democratic elements like Gerard Winstanely—a "Leveler" who wanted to give all men the right to vote and redistribute property equitably: these radicals threatened the property and power of the propertied elites; moreover, their devotion to democracy ran against the grain of the Calvinist conception of rule by the "God-chosen" Elect. In 1655 he disbanded Parliament and began ruling by decree.

But that, like the story of the popular uprisings in France in the 1650s and the reign of French King Louis XIV, are really topic from the next western civilization course, from 1650 to the Present!

Предмет політичної економії — економічні відносини людей в їх єдності і взаємодії з продуктивиними силами та політичними,ідеологічними,соціальними інститутами суспільства.
сукупність ек відносин

Еволюція: Сміт, Рікардо. Мілль – наука про створення, примноження та розподіл багатства націй.

Маркс – про виробничі відносини і закони, шо управляють виробництвом, розподілом, обміном та споживанням благ на різних етапах розв суспільства.

Самуельсон,Хейне – про дії людей у процесі вибору обмежених ресурсів для виробництва.
Залежно від функціональної мети політична економія поділяється на : позитивну яка ставить за мету всебічне пізнання економінчих процесів та явищ,розкриває їхні взаємозв язки та взаємозалежність,які зумовлюються реальною дійсністю. Досліджує фактичний стан економіки,економічну дійсність і відповідає на запитання:яка вона, нормативну яка з ясовує об єктивні процеси,дає їм оцінку,робить висновки та розробляє рекомендації щодо вдосконалення економічної системи,переходу її на вищий ступінь розвитку. Відповідає на запитання: як повинно бути,що для цього треба зробити